Treatments Access Services Insurance. Information by Topic. Resource Guide. Autism Response Team. Our Mission. Our Grantmaking. Research Programs. Deteccion De Autismo Deteccion Temprana. What Is Autism? Set Your Location. There is no one type of autism, but many. Early intervention can change a life. First Concern to Action. For Watson, psychology was the study of observable and measurable behavior and nothing more about hidden mental processes.
According to Watson, we cannot define consciousness any better than we can define the soul; we cannot locate it or measure it and, therefore, it cannot be the object of scientific study. As to Watson, behaviorism had three other important characteristics in addition to its focus on behavior; conditioned response as the elements or building blocks of behavior, learned rather than unlearned behaviors, and focus on animal behavior. He believed that all behaviors are learned but not inherited and learners are passive and reactive they are not initiating their learning but they respond when the environment stimulates them.
All the four schools of thought discussed so far were focusing on human mind and behavior as conscious experiences. But, an opposition to this assertion came from a physician in Vienna who, after working with so many patients, realized that human functioning was basically explained by more powerful forces which were not accessible to our consciousness. Hence, this lead to the formulation of a new school of thought in psychology called Psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis: psychology studies about the components of the unconscious part of the human mind. Sigmund Freud is the founder of this school of thought. He was the most controversial and most popular in the study of behavior and mental processes. He also underscored that that conflicts and emotional traumas that had occurred in early childhood can be too threatening to be remembered consciously and therefore they become hidden or unconscious and then will remain to affect later behavior.
Freud argued that conscious awareness is the tip of the mental iceberg beneath the visible tip lays the unconscious part of the mind. The unconscious which is the subject matter of psychoanalysis contains hidden wishes, passions, guilty secrets, unspeakable yearnings, and conflict between desire and duty. He used clinical case studies hypnosis and Dream analysis as a method. Before concluding this section, how do you think the above five early schools of psychology generally differ one from the other?
So, in the light of these three issues, now you compare and contrast the five schools of early psychology. Modern schools of psychology The early schools of thought have generally laid the foundation for further developments in psychology as a science. They opened a door for taking multiple perspectives in explaining human behavior and mental processes. Note that an important lesson learned from early psychological thoughts is that there are different ways of explaining the same behavior.
Hence, modern psychologists tend to examine human behavior through several views. The views that predominate today are psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, biological, and sociocultural perspectives. The schools are presented below.
Psychodynamic perspective - It has its origins in Freud's theory of psychoanalysis, but many other psychodynamic theories exist. This perspective emphasizes the unconscious dynamics within the individual such as inner forces, conflicts or instinctual energy. Behavioral Perspective- It emphasizes the role learning experiences play in shaping the behavior of an organism. Behaviorists focus on environmental conditions e. The behavioral perspective is sometimes called the "black box" approach in psychology because it treats the mind as less useful in understanding human behavior and focus on what goes in to and out of the box, but not on the processes that take place inside This means, behaviorists are only interested in the effects of the environment input on behavior output but not in the process inside the box.
Humanistic Perspective-According to this perspective, human behavior is not determined either by unconscious dynamics or the environment. Rather it emphasizes the uniqueness of human beings and focuses on human values and subjective experiences. The goal of humanistic psychology was helping people to express themselves creatively and achieve their full potential or self- actualization developing the human potential to its fullest.
Cognitive Perspective- it emphasizes what goes on in people's heads; how people reason, remember, understand language, solve problems, explain experiences and form beliefs. This perspective is concerned about the mental processes. The most important contribution of this perspective has been to show how people's thoughts and explanations affect their actions, feelings, and choices.
Techniques used to explore behavior from a cognitive perspective include electrical recording of brain activity, electrical stimulation and radioactive tracing of metabolic activity in the nervous system. It holds that the brain and the various brain chemicals affect psychological processes such as learning, performance, perception of reality, the experience of emotions, etc.
This perspective underscores that biology and behavior interact in a complex way; biology affecting behavior and behavior in turn affecting biology. It also emphasizes the idea that we are physical beings who evolved over a long time and that genetic heritage can predispose us to behaving in a certain way.
In a manner that our eyebrows evolved to protect our eyes, we may have evolved certain kinds of behavior patterns to protect our bodies and ensure the survival of our species. Socio-cultural Perspective- It focuses on the social and cultural factors that affects human behavior.
As a fish cannot leave without water, human behavior cannot be understood without sociocultural context the social and cultural environment that people "Swim" in every day.
For instance, social psychologists examine how group membership affects attitudes and behaviors, why authority and other people like spouse, lovers, friends, bosses, parents, and strangers affect each of us. Cultural psychologists also examine how cultural rules and values both explicit and unspoken affect people's development, behavior, and feelings. This perspective holds that humans are both the products and the producers of culture, and our behavior always occurs in some cultural contexts.
Dear student can guess and list out areas of concern for psychologists? Have you tried? Very good! Let us see some fields of psychology together. The areas where psychologists join to work depend all on the type of field of study they pursue in a university.
Accordingly, psychology has become a very diverse field today that there are different branches or sub fields which psychologists can pursue to study. Below are some of the branches of psychology. It attempts to examine the major developmental milestones that occur at different stages of development. Personality Psychology — it focuses on the relatively enduring traits and characteristics of individuals.
Personality psychologists study topics such as self-concept, aggression, moral development, etc. Cross-cultural Psychology - examines the role of culture in understanding behavior, thought, and emotion.
It compares the nature of psychological processes in different cultures, with a special interest in whether or not psychological phenomena are universal or culture-specific.
Industrial psychology — applies psychological principles in industries and organizations to increase the productivity of that organization. Forensic psychology - applies psychological principles to improve the legal system police, testimony, etc.. Educational Psychology - concerned with the application of psychological principles and theories in improving the educational process including curriculum, teaching, and administration of academic programs.
Health Psychology - applies psychological principles to the prevention and treatment of physical illness and diseases. Clinical Psychology:-is a field that applies psychological principles to the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders.
Counseling Psychology: - is a field having the same concern as clinical psychology but helps individuals with less severe problems than those treated by clinical psychologists. Research Methods in Psychology A. At the beginning of this chapter, we said that psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. This means, in psychology, researchers want to see only what is there, not what their biases might want them to see.
Researchers do this by using the scientific method a system for reducing bias and error in the measurement of data. Hence, before discussing the types of research methods; we try to see the following terms. Males have high self - confidence in making decisions than females. Although all psychologists pursue the same scientific method, there is, however, diversity in what psychologists do to achieve the different objectives and goals.
Hence, there are three major types of research methods: descriptive, correlational and experimental research methods. Descriptive research methods include naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys. Naturalistic observation: is a descriptive research method in which subjects are observed in their natural environment to get a real not artificial picture of how behavior occurs.
Case study: is a descriptive technique in which an individual is studied in great detail. Its advantage is that it provides tremendous amount of data about a single case or individual. Survey: is a descriptive research method used to collect data from a very large group of people.
It is useful to get information on private covert behaviors and it addresses hundreds of people with the same questions at the same time. Its disadvantage is that it needs a careful selection of a representative sample of the actual population.
Correlational research - is a research method that measures the relationship between two or more variables. A variable is anything that can change or vary —scores on a test, the temperature in a room, gender, and so on. For example, a researcher might be curious to know whether or not cigarette smoking is connected to life expectancy.
Experimental Research: it is a research method that allows researchers to study the cause and effect relationship between variables. In experimental research, a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated and all other factors are held constant.
Experiments involve at least one independent variable and one dependent variable. The independent variable is the manipulated, influential, experimental factor. The dependent variable is the factor behavior that is measured in an experiment. It can change as the independent variable is manipulated. Experiments also involve randomly assigned experimental groups and control groups.
An experimental group is a group whose experience is manipulated. A control group is a comparison that is treated in every way like the experimental group except for the manipulated factor class size.
The control group serves as a baseline against which the effects of the manipulated condition can be compared. In this example, the control group is the group of students who are assigned in large class sizes. Although experimental research is useful to discover causes of behaviors, such research must be done cautiously because expectations and biases on the part of both the researcher and participants can affect the results.
Did you try? In scientific research, there are at least five major steps to be followed. Step one - Defining the Problem - noticing something attention catching in the surrounding for which one would like to have an explanation.
You wonder if the violence in the cartoon video could be creating aggressive behavior on the children. Step two - Formulating the Hypothesis - after having an observation on surroundings perceiving the problem , you might form an educated guess about the explanation for your observations, putting it into the form of a statement that can be tested in some way. Step three - Testing the Hypothesis - at this step, the researcher employs appropriate research methods and collects ample data information to accept or reject the proposed statement.
For instance, in the above example, the data will be gathered from children who watch aggressive videos and from those who do not watch aggressive videos and make comparisons between the behaviors of the two groups to determine whether watching aggressive video makes children more aggressive. This allows others to predict and modify behavior based on the findings.
Modern perspectives of psychology have emerged from these early psychological thoughts. These modern perspectives that are used to describe and explain behavior and mind are ….. Compare and contrast the five early schools of thought in psychology. Compare and contrast the modern psychological perspectives. Please reflect on the relationship between the goals of psychology and the three types of research methods using examples.
Mention the steps of conducting research in psychology. Students in group one get the tutorial support and those in group two do not. Sensation and perception are the first important dimensions of this intelligent life. That is, they are starting points for all of your other psychological processes. They supply the data you use for learning and remembering, thinking and problem solving, communicating with others, and experiencing emotions and for being aware of yourself.
Without access to the environment through sensation and perception, you would be like a person in a coma devoid of any thoughts or feelings. It attempts to discuss the meaning and relationship of sensation and perception, the principles explaining how they work, and other related topics. Learner Appetizer Once upon a time, there were couples in a village. They had a horse. One day they started a journey both of them sitting on the horse.
When people see that, they get upset and criticized the couples as unkind to animals. Then, the husband sat on the horse leaving his wife walking on foot. Looking at this, people started to criticize the husband as selfish and disrespectful of his wife. Following the critics, the husband left the horse for his wife and walked on foot. People started laughing at the husband and labeled him as foolish. Finally, both the husband and his wife started walking on foot leaving the horse free.
As usual, people started joking at the couples and considered them as stupid guys because they left the horse free. Which one do you think refers to sensation and which one refers to perception? Sensation is the process whereby stimulation of receptor cells in the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and surface of the skin sends nerve impulses to the brain.
Sensations are closely tied to what is happening in the sensory systems themselves. Color, brightness, the pitch of tone or a bitter taste are examples of sensations. The starting of point of sensations is a stimulus. A form of energy such as light waves or sound waves that can affect sensory organs such as the eye or the ear.
How different is sensation from perception? In real life, you seldom experience simple sensations. Instead of simple sensations, perceptual processes are constantly at work to modify sensory input into what are actually experiences.
Perception is the process that organizes sensations into meaningful patterns. It is the process whereby the brain interprets sensations, giving them order and meaning. Thus, hearing sounds and seeing colors is largely a sensory process, but forming a melody and detecting patterns and shapes is largely a perceptual process. We say largely because in everyday life, it is almost impossible to separate sensation from perception.
As soon as the brain receives sensations, it automatically interprets or perceives them, and without sensations of some kind perception could not occur. Can you mention examples showing the difference between sensation and perception? Visual sensation lets you detect the black marks. Visual perception lets you organize the black marks into letters and works.
For a real life example of the difference between sensation and perception consider a case study presented by neurologist Oliver Sacks one of his patients suffered from brain damage that caused him to develop prospagnosia, the inability to recognize human faces.
The patient could recognize people by sound of their voices, but he could not recognize them by light. Reflection Dear student, now show with examples how sensation is similar and different from perception. There are certain sensory laws that explain how sensation works. Sensory threshold and sensory adaptation are the two general laws of sensation. Brainstorming questions How much intense must a sound be for you to detect it?
How much changes in light intensity must occur for you to notice it? Sensory threshold is the minimum point of intensity a sound can be detected. There are two laws of sensory threshold: The law of absolute threshold and the law of difference threshold.
The absolute threshold The minimum amount of stimulation a person can detect is called the absolute threshold, or Limen, for example, a cup of coffee would require a certain amount of sugar before you could detect a sweet taste. Because the absolute threshold for a particular sensory experience varies, psychologists operationally define the absolute threshold as the minimum level of stimulation that can be detected 50 percent of the time when a stimulus is presented over and over again.
Thus, if you were presented with a low intensity sound 30 times and detected it 15 times, that level of intensity would be your absolute threshold for that stimulus. One of the most important psychological factors is the response bias-how ready the person is to report the presence of a particular stimulus. Imagine that you are waking down a street at night. Your predisposition to detect a sound depends, in part, on your estimate of the probability of being mugged, so you would be more likely to perceive the sound of footsteps on a neighborhood you believe to be dangerous than in a neighbor-hood you believe to be safe.
The difference threshold In addition to detecting the presence of a stimulus, you also detect changes in the intensity of a stimulus. The minimum amount of change that can be detected is called difference threshold. For example, a cup of coffee would require a certain amount of additional sugar before you could detect an increase in its sweetness. Similarly, you would have to increase the intensity of the sound from your tape recorder a certain amount before you could detect a change in its volume.
Like the absolute threshold, the difference threshold for a particular sensory experience varies from person to person and from occasion to occasion. Therefore, psychologists formally define the difference threshold as the minimum change in stimulation that can be detected 50 percent of the time by a given person. This difference in threshold is called the just noticeable difference jnd.
The amount of change in intensity of stimulation needed to produce a jnd is a constant fraction of the original stimulus. But a person holding a ounce weight would require the addition or subtraction of at least 2 ounce to notice a change. Sensory Adaptation Brainstorming questions Given that each of your senses is constantly bombarded by stimulation, why do you notice only certain stimuli?
For example, after diving into a swimming pool, you might shiver. Yet a few minutes later you might not notice the odor at all, this tendency of our sensory receptors to have decreasing responsiveness to unchanging stimulus is called sensory adaptation.
Sensory adaptation lets you detect potentially important change in your environment while ignoring unchanging aspects of it. For example, when vibrations repeatedly stimulate your skin, you stop noticing them. Thus, if you were having a bumpy train ride that made your seat vibrate against your bottom, you would initially notice the vibrations, but it would serve little purpose for you to continue noticing them.
Of course, you will not adapt completely to extremely intense sensations, such as severe pain or freezing cold. This is adaptive, because to ignore such stimuli might be harmful or even fatal. Reflection Dear student, reflect on the following questions? Indicate the three conditions under which you may not be able to sense a stimulus. Indicate the conditions under which sensory difference occur among people.
Give at least 5 major differences and similarities between sensation and perception. What does sensing involve? How does sensory adaptation occurs 2. Now you study more about this meaning making process of the human intelligent life.
It helps you understand the major characteristics of the perceptual process: selectivity of perception, from perception, depth perception, perceptual constancy, and perceptual illusion.
Selectivity of perception: Attention Note that at any given time, your sense organ is bombarded by many stimuli.
Yet you perceive a few of them. Were you aware of, for example, the noise in your room until you read this sentence? You may not. Yet input from the environment was coming into your ears all the time.
In fact you may be attending to one of such incoming in put ignoring the other noises. Such selective perception is called attention. Attention is therefore the term given to the perceptual process that selects certain inputs for inclusion in your conscious experience, or awareness, at any given time, ignoring others.
What does this selectivity of perception imply? Brainstorming questions What does this selectivity of perception imply? You may be aware of items in the marginal field but only vaguely or partially To illustrate focus and margin consider that your perceptual field is a football game. While you are dimly aware of the tangle of players and the activity of the blockers during the play, it is the ball carrier and his movement that stands out clearly to you your attention is mainly focused on him.
But at the same time, sensory inputs are coming in from your cold feet, from your stomach as a result of the last uncomfortable food you ate, and from the fellow behind you whi is smoking a cigar. The crowd is also shouting.
While the play is going on, you are probable not aware of any of these sensory inputs. Only when the play is finished or time is called that you perceive how cold your feet are, and how noisy the crowd is.
The fact that you perceive how cold your feet are, and how noise the crowd is when the play is finished or time is called illustrates another characteristics of attention, that it is constantly shifting. Attention shifts constantly. What is in the focus of your attention one moment may be in margin; and what is in the margin may become in your focus.
Why do you pay, in the above example, attention to the ball carrier ignoring others and why, at the end of the game, your attention shifted to the cold feeling you are experiencing in your feet? What aspects of the environment get your attention at a given time? Paying attention is in general a function of two factors: factors external to the perceiver and factors internal to the perceiver.
External factors refer to factors that are generally found in the objects or stimuli to be perceived. Some of the external characteristics of objects that determine whether you are going to attend them or not are size and intensity, repetition, novelty or newness , and movement.
Other things being constant, bigger and brighter stimuli are more likely to capture your attention than smaller and dimmer objects. That is why announcements and notice are written in big and block letters. In the same way, people who dress bright colored clothes tend to capture your attention. Repetition is the second factor. You are more likely to attend to stimuli that repeatedly or frequently occur in your perceptual field. A misspelled word is more likely to be detected if it occurs many times in a paragraph than when it occurs only once or twice.
You are going to notice a person if he continuously follows you as compared to a person you meet only once or twice. That is, by the way, why slogans, advertisings, and announcement are repeated continuously to audiences and spectators. In a word, repetition is attention getting. However, no matter how big or bright a stimulus is, or else no matter how frequently it may occur, you may not give it attention as if it occurs in the same way all the time.
This is basically because you are likely to adapt to it and then stop responding to it. This is called sensory adaptation or habituation. It is the tendency to ignore a stimulus that occurs continuously in the same way. Hence, the third factor of attention is novelty-the extent to which a stimulus creates a contrast with the rest objects in the environment. Novel or new objects create a sharp contrast with the environment and hence tend to capture your attention.
Remember here why you are given a special attention as a guest, why first-born children get more attention from parents etc. The last but not the least external factor in attention getting is movement. Moving objects tend to get your attention more than non-moving or stagnant objects.
Your eyes are involuntarily attracted to movement the way butterflies are attracted to light. Moreover, moving objects bring with them changes in stimulation or newness in their presentation. In general, stimuli in the environment that, are bigger and brighter, or more frequently occurring. Or newer or moving are likely to get your attention. Paying attention is not, however, determined only by these characteristics of objects.
Even when a stimulus is bigger, brighter, new frequent, or moving, you may not give it attention if you are not psychologically ready to attend to it. Hence, attention giving also depends on your psychological states as an observer. What are some of the internal psychological states of the observer that affect as to which stimulus on pays attention to or ignore?
Psychologists have identified two important psychological factors: Set or expectancy and motives or needs. Set, or expectancy, therefore, varies from person to person. It is important not only in the selection of sensory input for inclusion in the focus of your attention. It is also important in organizing the selected sensory input. To illustrate the role of set in attention, consider the husband who is expecting an important phone call.
He will hear the telephone ring in the night while his wife does not. The wife, on the other hand, may more likely to hear the baby crying than the telephone ringing. Of course, if the wife is expecting an important cell, the reverse may be true. What other examples, do you think, illustrate the role of set or expectancy in perception? Motives and needs are the second psychological factors influencing you as an observer.
There are differences between you and your friend in what you select to perceive as a result of differences in your motives and needs. You and your friend attend to and organize the sensory input in ways that match your respective needs. People who are hungry, thirst, or sexually aroused are likely to pay attention to events in the environment, which will satisfy these needs.
You just give examples showing how motives and needs in the example mentioned previously about perceptions of a football game affect your attention. Assume that you are in your room with your friend listening to music.
But your friend is rather listening to people talking outside. Why do you think you and your friend differed while you both were in the same place? Look at the symbol 13 in the following two raw of symbols: a raw of letters and a raw of numbers. From perception Visual sensations, as discussed under sensation, provide the raw materials that are to be organized into meaningful patterns, shapes, forms, and concepts or ideas or form perception.
The meaningful shapes or patterns or ideas that are made perhaps out of meaningless and discrete or pieces and bites of sensations refer to form perception. To perceive forms meaningful shapes or patterns , you need to distinguish a figure an object from its ground or its surrounding.
Let us look at this idea further. Figure-Ground Perception Figure-ground perception is the perception of objects and forms of everyday experience as standing out from a background. The ability to distinguish an object from its general background is basic to all form perception. And gestalt psychologists stress that form perception in an active, rather than a passive, process like selectivity of perception. Hence, there can be a shift in you perception of figure and ground such that the figure may become the ground and vice versa.
Factors that determine your attention equally determine what should become the figure and what should become the ground. By the way, what helps you in general to separate the figure from the general around in your visual perception? This will take you to the second feature of form perception called contours. Contours in Form Perception You are able to separate forms from the general ground only because you can perceive contours. Contours are formed whenever a marked difference occurs in the brightness or color of the background.
If you, for instance, look at a piece of paper that varies continuously in brightness from white at one border to black at the opposite border, you will perceive no contour. The paper will appear uniform, and if you are asked to say where the sheet stops being light and starts to become dark, you can only guess. On the other hand, if the change is marked rather than gradual-suppose several shades are skipped-you will see the paper as divided in to two parts.
In perceiving the division at the place where the brightness gradient changes abruptly, you have perceived a contour. In general, contours give shape to the objects in our visual world because they mark one object off from another or they mark an object off from the general ground. When contours are disrupted visually, as in camouflage, objects are difficult to distinguish from the background.
Consider a reptile named chameleon. Explain why this reptile changes its color accordingly to the environment it is found using the idea of contours in form perception. Why are soldiers dressed in green uniforms in almost all countries? What will happen if you write with a charcoal on a blackboard? What will again happen if you write with a pen or with white ink on a white piece of paper?
Do you advice a black man to dress a white cloth or a black cloth? What is the implication of all the above questions? The Gestalt psychologists studied such organization intensively in the early part of this century. They emphasized that organized perceptual experience has properties, which cannot be predicated from a simple analysis of the components.
Organization in perception partially explains our perception of complex patterns as unitary forms, or objects. We see objects as objects only because grouping processes operate in perception. What are some of the laws of perceptual organization? One organizing principle is proximity, or nearness. The laws of proximity says that items which are close together in space or time tend to be perceived as belonging together or forming an organized group. Another organizing principle of perception is similarity.
Most people see one triangle formed by the dots with its apex at the top and another triangle formed by the rings with its apex at the bottom. They perceive triangle because similar items such as, the rings and the dots, tend to be organized together. Otherwise, they would see a hexagon or a six-pointed star, where all the dots are the same.
Grouping according to similarity, however, does not always occur. A figure is more easily seen as a six-pointed star than as one figure composed of dots and another figure made up of rings. In this case, similarity is competing with the organizing principle of symmetry, or good figure. Neither the circle nor the dots by themselves from a symmetrical pattern. The law of good figure says that there is a tendency to organize things to make a balanced or symmetrical figure that includes all the parts.
Still another principle or organization is continuation, the tendency to perceive a line that starts in one way as continuing in the same way. For example, a line that starts out as a curve is seen as continuing on smoothly curved course. A straight line is seen as continuing on a straight course or, if it does change direction as forming an angle rather than a curve. We see the dots as several curved and straight lines.
Even though the curved and straight lines cross and have dots in common, it is only with an effort that we can perceive a straight line suddenly becoming a curved line at one of these functions.
Finally, the law of closure makes our perceived world or form more complete than the sensory stimulation that is presented. The law of closure refers to perceptual processes that organize the perceived world by filling in gaps in stimulation Reflection Dear student, reflect on the following questions?
Try to give a pictorial representation of the laws of perceptual organization. Compare and contrast these laws of organization 2. Depth perception If we live in a two-dimensional world, form perception would be sufficient. But because we live in a three-dimensional world, we have evolved depth perception-the ability to judge the distance of objects. Given that images on the retina are two dimensional, how can we perceive depth?
That is, how can we determine the distance of objects the distal stimulus from the pattern of stimulation on our retinas the proximal stimulus? Depth perception depends on the use binocular cues and monocular cues there are two kinds of binocular cues: retinal disparity and convergence. The two kinds of binocular cues require the interaction of both eyes. Retinal disparity is, the degree of difference between the image of an object that are focused on the two retinas.
The closer the object, the greater is the retinal disparity. Look at the finger with one eye closed. Then look at it with the other closed. You will notice that the background shifts as you view the scene with different views of the same stimulus. Retinal disparity is greater when an object is near you than when it is farther away from you.
Certain cells in visual cortex detect the degree of retinal disparity, which the brain uses to estimate the distance of an object focused on the retinas. The second binocular cue to depth is convergence, the degree to which the eyes turn inward to focus on an object. As you can confirm for yourself, the closer the objects are the greater the convergence of the eyes.
Hold a forefinger vertically in front of your face and move it toward your nose. You should notice an increase in ocular muscle tension as your finger approaches your nose. Neurons in the cerebral cortex translate the amount of muscle tension into an estimate of the distance of your finger. Not that convergence is associated with important everyday activities. For example, drinking alcohol impairs depth perception by disrupting the normal convergence of the eyes and using a computer terminal for hours induce eye fatigue caused by continues convergence.
Binocular cues require two eyes, whereas monocular cues require only one. This means that even people who have lost sight in one eye may still have good depth perception.
One monocular is accommodation, which is the change in the shape of the lens that lets you focus the image of an object on the retina. Neuron in the rectum assume that the greater the accommodation of the lens, the closer the object.
But prolonged accommodation can alter your depth perception. For example, if you stare at a near object for a long time and then look at a more distant object, the more distant object will look farther away than it is.
A second monocular cue is motion parallax, the tendency to perceive ourselves as passing objects faster when they are closer to us than when they are farther away.
You will notice this when you drive on a rural road. You perceive yourself passing nearby telephone poles faster than you are passing a farmhouse. Leonardo da Vinci formalized pictorial cues year ago in teaching his art students how to use them to make their paintings look more realistic. He noted that an object that overlaps another object will appear closer, a cue called interposition.
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Perceptual constancy. For sure I liked it but I didn't really love it. Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception.
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